Legal liability (Intentional creation of)

Legal liability 

Legal liability is the legal bound obligation to pay debts.^[1]

• In law a person is said to be legally liable when they are financially and legally responsible for something. Legal liability concerns both civil law and criminal law. See Strict liability. Under English law, with the passing of the Theft Act 1978, it is an offense to evade a liability dishonestly. Payment of damages usually resolved the liability. Vicarious liability arises under the common law doctrine of agency – respondeat superior – the responsibility of the superior for the acts of their subordinate.
• In commercial law, limited liability is a form of business ownership in which business owners are legally responsible for no more than the amount that they have contributed to a venture. If for example, a business goes bankrupt an owner with limited liability will not lose unrelated assets such as a personal residence (assuming they do not give personal guarantees). This is the standard model for larger businesses, in which a shareholder will only lose the amount invested (in the form of stock value decreasing). For an explanation see business entity.
• Manufacturer’s liability is a legal concept in most countries that reflects the fact that producers have a responsibility not to sell a defective product. See product liability.

Johnson and Johnson

Johnson & Johnson

Not to be confused with S. C. Johnson & Son.

Johnson & Johnson

Type	Public (NYSE: JNJ) Dow Jones Industrial Average Component
Industry	Major drugs Health care Soaps Shampoos
Founded	1886
Founder(s)	Robert Wood Johnson I James Wood Johnson Edward Mead Johnson
Headquarters	New Brunswick, NJ, U.S.
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	William C. Weldon (Chairman) & (CEO)
Products	Pharmaceuticals Medical devices Health care products Toiletries Soaps Shampoos , etc.
Revenue	▲ US$61.9 Billion (FY 2009)[1]
Operating income	▲ US$15.7 Billion (FY 2009)[1]
Net income	▲ US$12.3 Billion (FY 2009)[1]
Total assets	▲ US$94.7 Billion (FY 2009)[2]
Total equity	▲ US$50.6 Billion (FY 2009)[2]
Employees	118,700 (2009)[3]
Website	JNJ.com also JJ.com

Johnson & Johnson (NYSE: JNJ) is a global American pharmaceutical, medical devices and consumer packaged goods manufacturer founded in 1886. Its common stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average and the company is listed among the Fortune 500. Johnson & Johnson is known for its corporate reputation, consistently ranking at the top of Harris Interactive‘s National Corporate Reputation Survey,^[4] ranking as the world’s most respected company by Barron’s Magazine,^[5] and was the first corporation awarded the Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy by the U.S. State Department for its funding of international education programs.^[6] A suit brought by the United States Department of Justice in 2010, however, alleges that the company from 1999 to 2004 illegally marketed drugs to Omnicare, a pharmacy that dispenses the drugs in nursing homes.^[7]

The corporation’s headquarters is located in New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States. Its consumerSkillman, New Jersey. The corporation includes some 250 subsidiary companies with operations in over 57 countries. Its products are sold in over 175 countries. J&J had worldwide pharmaceutical sales of $24.6 billion for the full-year 2008. division is located in

Johnson & Johnson’s brands include numerous household names of medications and first aid supplies. Among its well-known consumer products are the Band-Aid Brand line of bandages, Tylenol medications, Johnson’s baby products, Neutrogena skin and beauty products, Clean & Clear facial wash and Acuvue contact lenses

Eli Lilly

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This article is about the pharmacist and founder of Eli Lilly and Company. For the Fortune 500 pharmaceutical company, see Eli Lilly and Company.

Eli Lilly
Colonel Eli Lilly in 1885
Born	July 8, 1838(1838-07-08) Baltimore, Maryland
Died	June 6, 1898 (aged 59) Indianapolis , Indiana
Cause of death	Cancer
Resting place	Crown Hill Cemetery Indianapolis , Indiana
Nationality	American
Education	Pharmacology
Alma mater	Asbury College
Occupation	Pharmaceutical Chemist Soldier Industrialist
Known for	Eli Lilly & co. Philanthropy
Home town	Indianapolis, Indiana
Title	Colonel
Political party	Republican
Religion	Methodist
Spouse	Emily Lemen (1860–1866) Maria Cynthia Sloan (1869–1898)
Children	Josiah K. Lilly, Sr.
Parents	Esther & Gustavus Lilly
Relatives	Eli Lilly (Grandson) Josiah K. Lilly, Jr. (Grandson)
Signature

Eli Lilly (July 8, 1838 – June 6, 1898) was an American soldier, pharmaceutical chemist, industrialist, entrepreneur, and founder of the Eli Lilly and Company pharmaceutical corporation. Lilly enlisted in the Union Army during the American Civil War; he recruited a company of men to serve with him in an artillery battery, was later promoted to colonel, and was given command of a cavalry unit. He was captured near the end of the war and held as a prisoner of war until its conclusion. After the war, he attempted to run a plantation in Mississippi, but failed and returned to his pharmacy profession after the death of his wife. Lilly remarried and worked in several pharmacies with partners before opening his own business in 1876 with plans to manufacture drugs and market them wholesale to pharmacies.

His company was successful and he soon became wealthy after making numerous advances in medicinal drug manufacturing. Two of the early advances he pioneered were creating gelatin capsules to hold medicine and fruit flavoring for liquid medicines. Eli Lilly & Company was one of the first pharmaceutical firms of its kind; it staffed a dedicated research department and put in place numerous quality-assurance measures.

Using his wealth, Lilly engaged in numerous philanthropic pursuits. He turned over the management of the company to his son in 1890 allowing himself to continue his engagement in charity and civic advancement in his primary focus. He helped found the organization that became the Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce, was the primary patron of Indiana’s branch of the Charity Organization Society, and personally funded the creation of the city’s children’s hospital which was later expanded by the state to become the Riley Children’s Hospital. He continued his active involvement with many organizations until his death from cancer in 1898.

Lilly was an advocate of federal regulation of the pharmaceutical industry, and many of his suggested reforms were enacted into law in 1906, resulting in the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. He was also among the pioneers of the concept of prescriptions, and helped form what became the common practice of giving addictive or dangerous medicines only to people who had first seen a physician. The company he founded has since grown into one of the largest and most influential pharmaceutical corporations in the world, and the largest corporation in Indiana. Using the wealth generated by the company, his son and grandsons created the Lilly Endowment to continue Lilly’s legacy of philanthropy. The endowment remains one of the largest charitable benefactors in the world.

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AstraZeneca

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AstraZeneca plc

Type	Public limited company (LSE: AZN, NASDAQ: AZN, OMX: AZN)
Industry	Pharmaceutical
Founded	6 April 1999 by merger
Headquarters	London, United Kingdom
Key people	Louis Schweitzer, Chairman David R. Brennan, Chief Executive Officer[1]
Products	Pharmaceutical products for humans
Revenue	$32,804 million (2009)[2]
Operating income	$11,543 million (2009)[2]
Net income	$7,544 million (2009)[2]
Total assets	▼ US$46.8 Billion (FY 2009)[3]
Total equity	▲ US$15.9 Billion (FY 2009)[3]
Employees	62,000 (2010)[4]
Website	astrazeneca.com

AstraZeneca plc^[5] (LSE: AZN, NYSE: AZN, OMX: AZN) is a global pharmaceutical and biologicscompany headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the world’s seventh largest pharmaceutical company measured by revenues and has operations in over 100 countries.^[6][7] It has a portfolio of products for major disease areas including cancer, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, infection, neuroscience, respiratoryinflammation.^[4] and

Its primary listing is on the London Stock Exchange and it is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. It has secondary listings on the New York Stock Exchange and the OMX exchange.

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Seroquel

Quetiapine

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Quetiapine

Systematic (IUPAC) name
2-(2-(4-dibenzo[b,f][1,4]thiazepine- 11-yl- 1-piperazinyl)ethoxy)ethanol
Identifiers
CAS number	111974-69-7
ATC code	N05AH04
PubChem	CID 5002
IUPHAR ligand ID	50
DrugBank	DB01224
ChemSpider	4827
Chemical data
Formula	C21H25N3O2S
Mol. mass	383.5099 g/mol
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	9%
Metabolism	Hepatic
Half-life	6 hours
Excretion	Renal
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	C(US)
Legal status	℞-only (US)
Routes	Oral
(what is this?)  (verify)Y

Quetiapine (pronounced /kwɨˈtaɪ.əpiːn/ kwi-TYE-ə-peen), marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, both as a quetiapine fumarate salt of the drug, is an atypical antipsychoticschizophrenia, bipolar I mania, bipolar II depression, bipolar I depression, and used off-label for a variety of other purposes, including insomnia and anxiety disorders. used in the treatment of

Annual sales are approximately $4.7 billion worldwide, and $2.9 billion in the U.S.^[1] The patent in the U.S., which was set to expire in 2011, received a pediatric exclusivity extension, which pushed its expiration to March 26, 2012.^[2] The patent already expired in Canada. Several pharmaceutical companies are now making generic versions of quetiapine. Quepin is a generic version manufactured and marketed by Specifar ABEE, Athens, Greece.^[3]

Controversy arose over AstraZeneca’s aggressive marketing of the Seroquel for off-label uses, including treatment of PTSD in veterans. Several American soldiers and veterans have died while taking Seroquel.^[4]

Contents [show] 1 Uses 1.1 Investigations 2 Pharmacology 3 Forms 3.1 Dosage 3.2 Sustained-release quetiapine 4 Side effects 4.1 Withdrawal effects 5 Overdosage 6 Recreational use 7 Federal investigations 8 Chemistry 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

[edit] Uses

Quetiapine (Seroquel) 25 mg tablets, next to US one-cent coin for comparison.

Quetiapine is indicated for the treatment of schizophrenia, depressive episodes associated with bipolar disorder, acute manic episodes associated with bipolar I disorder (as either monotherapy or adjunct therapy to lithium or valproate), and maintenance treatment of bipolar I disorder (as adjunct therapy to lithium or divalproex). Quetiapine received its initial indication from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for treatment of schizophrenia in 1997.^[5] In 2004, it received its second indication for the treatment of mania-associated bipolar disorder.^[6] It is sometimes used off-label, often as an augmentation agent, to treat conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, restless legs syndrome, autism, alcoholism, depression,^[7] Tourette syndrome,^[8] and has been used by physicians as a sedative for those with sleep disorders or anxiety disorders.^[9]

In 2005, the National Institute of Mental Health examined quetiapine and other antipsychotics to uncover the comparative efficacy of “second generation” anti-psychotics against older anti-psychotics (known as “first generation” or “typical anti-psychotics”). Such information could be important to the patients, as the newer drugs are far more expensive than their older counterparts. Published in the New England Journal of Medicine, the results of the CATIE (“clinical antipsychotic trials of interventional effectiveness”) trial were somewhat mixed. 74% of trial participants (of the 1,493 people who were in different treatment groups) discontinued before the trial ended. The majority of the participants discontinued treatment due to intolerable side effects or lack of efficacy. Olanzapine (Zyprexa) was considered the most effective in terms of the time it took patients to drop out of the study, although it was associated with greater weight gain and glucoseperphenazine.^[10] The CATIE trial was supported by a grant (N01 MH90001) from the NIMH and by the Foundation of Hope of Raleigh, N.C. The individual pharmaceutical companies, whose drugs were used, donated all of the study medication. intolerability found in diabetes patients. The effects of all other treatments (such as Seroquel) were considered to be similar to the effects of the generic (and dramatically less expensive) drug,

A report in British Medical Journal in 2005 showed that quetiapine was ineffective in reducing agitation among Alzheimer’s patients, whose usage of the drug constituted 29% of sales. In fact, quetiapine was found to worsen cognitive functioning in elderly patients with dementia.^[11]

Use of quetiapine to minimize the symptoms of opioid withdrawal has been studied.^[12]

[edit] Investigations

In 2007 and 2008, studies were conducted on quetiapine’s efficacy in treating generalized anxiety disorder and major depression. In April 2009, the Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held a public meeting to discuss whether study results supported the FDA’s approval for anxiety and depression, with risks of metabolic side effects and of tardive dyskinesia and sudden cardiac death.^[13]

In 2010 AstraZeneca was ordered to pay $520 million in a settlement with State and Federal authorities. According to the settlement AstraZeneca promoted the sale and use of Seroquel for uses not approved by the FDA, and paid illegal kickbacks to doctors. As a result of their promotional activity, physicians prescribed Seroquel for children, adolescents and dementia patients in long term care facilities.^[14]

[edit] Pharmacology

Quetiapine has the following pharmacological actions:^{[15][16][17][18]}

• D₁ (IC₅₀ = 1268nM), D₂ (IC₅₀ = 329nM), D₃, and D₄ receptor antagonist
• 5-HT_1A (IC₅₀ = 717nM), 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2C, and 5-HT₇ receptor antagonist
• α₁-adrenergic (IC₅₀ = 94nM) and α₂-adrenergic receptor (IC₅₀ = 271nM) antagonist
• H₁ receptor (IC₅₀ = 30nM) antagonist
• mACh receptor (IC₅₀ = >5000nM) antagonist (There are contradictions on whether or not this blocks acetylcholine receptors.)

This means Quetiapine is dopamine, serotonin and adrenergic antagonist, anticholinergic substance and antihistamine. Quetiapine binds strongly to serotonin receptors. Serial PET scans evaluating the D₂ receptor occupancy of quetiapine have demonstrated that quetiapine very rapidly disassociates from the D₂^[19] Theoretically, this allows for normal physiological surges of dopamine to elicit normal effects in areas such as the nigrostriatal and tuberoinfundibular pathways, thus minimizing the risk of side effects such as pseudo-parkinsonism as well as elevations in prolactin.^{[citation needed]} receptor.

Zyprexa (? + rex(king))

Olanzapine

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Olanzapine

Systematic (IUPAC) name
2-methyl-4-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)-10H-thieno[2,3-b][1,5]benzodiazepine
Identifiers
CAS number	132539-06-1
ATC code	N05AH03
PubChem	CID 4585
IUPHAR ligand ID	47
DrugBank	DB00334
ChemSpider	10442212
Chemical data
Formula	C17H20N4S
Mol. mass	312.439
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Physical data
Melt. point	195 °C (383 °F)
Solubility in water	Practically insoluble in water mg/mL (20 °C)
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	87% [1]
Metabolism	Hepatic (direct glucuronidation and CYP mediated oxidation)
Half-life	21–54 hours
Excretion	urine 57%, feces 30%
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	C
Legal status	℞ Prescription only
Routes	oral, intramuscular
(what is this?)  (verify)Y

Zyprexa 10 mg tablets (AU)

Olanzapine (trade names Zyprexa, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, Oferta, Zypadhera or in combination with fluoxetine Symbyax) is an atypical antipsychotic, approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.^[2] Olanzapine is structurally similar to clozapine, but is classified as a thienobenzodiazepine. The olanzapine formulations are manufactured and marketed by the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company, whose patent for olanzapine proper expires in 2011 (in October 2009 a Canadian judge ruled that the 1991 patent was invalid).^[3] Sales of Zyprexa in 2008 were $2.2B in the US alone, and $4.7B in total.^[4]

Contents [show] 1 Indications and Usage 1.1 Off-label uses 1.1.1 Prevention of psychosis 1.1.2 Use in elderly 2 Dosage and administration 3 Pharmacology 4 Metabolism 5 Side effects, adverse reactions 5.1 Metabolic effects 5.2 Animal Toxicology 6 Overdose 7 Controversy, lawsuits and settlements 8 Chemistry 9 See also 10 Notes and references 11 External links 11.1 Manufacturer site 11.2 Consumer information 11.3 Controversy

[edit] Indications and Usage

• oral formulation: acute and maintenance treatment of schizophrenia in adults, acute treatment of manic or mixed episodes associated with bipolar I disorder (monotherapy and in combination with lithium or valproate)
• intramuscular formulation: acute agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar I mania in adults
• oral formulation combined with fluoxetine: treatment of acute depressive episodes associated with bipolar I disorder in adults, or treatment of acute, resistant depression in adults ^[5]

Known FDA approvals are as follows:

• approved for the treatment of the manifestations of psychotic disorders on September 6, 1996^[6]

• approved in combination with fluoxetine for the treatment of depressive episodes associated with Bipolar disorder on December 24, 2003^[7]

• approved for the long-term treatment of bipolar I disorder on January 14, 2004^[8]

• approved in combination with fluoxetine for treatment of resistant depression on March 19, 2009.^[9]

[edit] Off-label uses

Case-reports, open-label, and small pilot studies suggest efficacy of olanzapine for the treatment of some anxiety spectrum disorders (e.g. generalized anxiety disorder,^[10] panic disorder,^[11] post-traumatic stress disorder);^[12] however, olanzapine has not been rigorously evaluated in randomized, placebo-controlled trials for this use and is not FDA approved for these indications. Other common off-label uses of olanzapine include the treatment of eating disorders (e.g. anorexia nervosa) and as an adjunctive treatment for major depressive disorder without psychotic features. It has also been used for Tourette syndrome and stuttering.^[13][14] Olanzapine is also used in many addiction clinics as a sleep aid (usually 2.5–5 mg) due to its low abuse profile and zero addictive properties.

[edit] Prevention of psychosis

Olanzapine has been considered as part of an early psychosis approach for schizophrenia. The Prevention through Risk Identification, Management, and Education (PRIME) study, funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and Eli Lilly, tested the hypothesis that olanzapine might prevent the onset of psychosis in people at very high risk for schizophrenia. The study examined 60 patients with prodromal schizophrenia, who were at an estimated risk of 36–54% of developing schizophrenia within a year, and treated half with olanzapine and half with placebo.^[15] In this study, patients receiving olanzapine had a lower risk of progressing to psychosis, although the difference did not reach statistical significance. Olanzapine was effective for treating the prodromal symptoms, but was associated with significant weight gain.^[16]

[edit] Use in elderly

Citing an increased risk of stroke, in 2004 the Committee on the Safety of Medicines (CSM) in the UK issued a warning that olanzapine and risperidone, both atypical antipsychotic medications, should not be given to elderly patients with dementia. In the U.S., olanzapine comes with a black box warning for increased risk of death in elderly patients. It is not approved for use in patients with dementia-related psychosis.^[17][18]

However, a BBC investigation in June 2008 found that this advice was being widely ignored by British doctors.

Risperdal (psedoscience and the psychiatric equivalent to AIDS/HIV/H4)

Risperidone

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Risperidone

Systematic (IUPAC) name
4-[2-[4-(6-fluorobenzo[d]isoxazol-3-yl)- 1-piperidyl]ethyl]-3-methyl- 2,6-diazabicyclo[4.4.0]deca-1,3-dien-5-one
Identifiers
CAS number	106266-06-2
ATC code	N05AX08
PubChem	CID 5073
IUPHAR ligand ID	96
DrugBank	DB00734
ChemSpider	4895
Chemical data
Formula	C23H27FN4O2
Mol. mass	410.485 g/mol
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	70% (oral)
Metabolism	Hepatic (CYP2D6-mediated)
Half-life	3–20 hours
Excretion	Urinary
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	C
Legal status	℞ Prescription only
Routes	Oral and extended-release intramuscular injection
(what is this?)  (verify)Y

Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PEAR-rǐ-dōne) is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat schizophreniaschizoaffective disorder, the mixed and manic states associated with bipolar disorder, and irritability in children with autism. The drug was developed by Janssen-Cilag and first released in 1994^[1]. It is sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, New Zealand and several other countries, Risperdal or Ridal in New Zealand, Sizodon or Riscalin in India, Rispolept in Eastern Europe, and Russia, and Belivon, or Rispen elsewhere. (including adolescent schizophrenia),

Contents [show] 1 Indications and Uses 2 Availability 3 Side effects 4 Pharmacology 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Indications and Uses

• treatment of schizophrenia in adults
• treatment of schizophrenia in adolescents aged 13-17 years
• alone or in combination with lithium or valproate, for the short-term treatment of acute manic or mixed episodes associated with Bipolar I Disorder in adults
• alone in the short-term treatment of acute manic or mixed episodes associated with Bipolar I Disorder in children and adolescents aged 10-17 years
• treatment of irritability associated with autistic disorder in children and young adults
• it has also been used as a control drug for people with tourette syndrome and other tic disorders.
• treatment of major depression with psychotic features
• cure persistent or intractable hiccups^[2]

Risperidone was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1993 for the treatment of schizophrenia.^[3]

On August 22, 2007, risperidone was approved as the only drug agent available for treatment of schizophrenia in youth ages 13–17; it was also approved that same day for treatment of bipolar disorder in youth and children ages 10–17, joining lithium. Risperidone contains the functional groups of benzisoxazolepiperidine as part of its molecular structure. In 2003 the FDA approved risperidone for the short-term treatment of the mixed and manic states associated with bipolar disorder. In 2006 the FDA approved risperidone for the treatment of irritability in children and adolescents with autism.^[4] The FDA’s decision was based in part on a study of autistic children with severe and enduring problems of violent meltdowns, aggression, and self-injury; risperidone is not recommended for autistic children with mild aggression and explosive behavior without an enduring pattern.^[5] Like other atypical antipsychotics, risperidone has also been used off-label for the treatment of anxiety disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder; severe, treatment-resistant depression with or without psychotic features; tourette syndrome; disruptive behavior disorders in children; and eating disorders, among others. In two small studies risperidone was reported to successfully treat the symptoms of phencyclidine (PCP) psychosis due to acute intoxication^[6] and chronic use.^[7] and

A 2009 Cochrane Library review found no evidence from randomized controlled trials that risperidone is effective for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in people with intellectual disabilities.^[8] A multi-year UK study by the Alzheimer’s Research Trust suggested that this and other neuroleptic anti-psychotic drugs commonly given to Alzheimer’s patients with mild behavioural problems often made their condition worse. The study concluded that:

“

For most patients with AD, withdrawal of neuroleptics had no overall detrimental effect on functional and cognitive status and by some measures improved functional and cognitive status. Neuroleptics may have some value in the maintenance treatment of more severe neuropsychiatric symptoms, but this possibility must be weighed against the unwanted effects of therapy.[9]

”

[edit] Availability

Risperdal 4 mg tablets (UK)

Janssen’s patent on Risperdal expired on December 29, 2003, opening the market for cheaper generic versions of the drug from other companies, and Janssen’s exclusive marketing rights expired on June 29, 2004 (the result of a pediatric extension.)

Risperidone is available as a tablet in 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 mg sizes, as an oral solution (30ml, 1 mg/ml), and as a 12.5 mg, 25 mg, 37.5 mg and 50 mg ampoule Risperdal Consta, which is a depot injectionRisperdal M-Tabs and elsewhere as Risperdal Quicklets. administered once every two weeks. It is also available as a wafer known in the United States and Canada as

Risperidone became available as a generic drug in October 2008 from Teva Pharmaceuticals, Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories, Inc. and Patriot Pharmaceutics. The Patriot generic is Janssen Pharmaceutical’s “authorized generic pharmaceutical.”

[edit] Side effects

Risperidone has been associated with weight gain.^[10] Other common side effects include akathisia, sedation, dysphoria, insomnia, sexual dysfunction, low blood pressure, high blood pressure, muscle stiffness, muscletremors, increased salivation, constipation, and stuffy nose. pain,

Many antipsychotics are known to cause hyperprolactinemia which may lead to hypogonadism-induced osteoporosis, galactorrhoea, gynaecomastia, irregular menstruation and sexual dysfunction. However, risperidone is known to increase prolactin to a greater extent than other atypical antipsychotics. Although lactation is possible in both sexes using other antipsychotic drugs, risperidone is the biggest offender.^[11][12][13] It is thought that once risperidone raises prolactin, it may cause prolactinoma, a benign tumor of the pituitary gland. Tumors, in general, are not considered reversible. Medical therapy may help reduce tumor size and restore normal reproduction and pituitary function, however, dopamine agonists^[14] There is a higher association between pituitary neoplasms with use of risperidone and amisulpride than with other antipsychotic agents. are not likely to be prescribed to antipsychotic users, thus, surgery or radiation treatment may be required. This condition may recur if the patient is switched to a different antipsychotic. Risperidone has been known to cause increased thoughts of suicide.

Risperidone can potentially cause tardive dyskinesia (TD),^[15] extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS),^[15] and neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS).^[15] Risperidone may also trigger diabetes and more serious conditions of glucose metabolism, including ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar coma, according to an FDA Warning Letter issued to Janssen Pharmaceutica, Inc. on 19-Apr-04.^[16]

[edit] Pharmacology

This drug belongs to a class of antipsychotic drugs known as atypical antipsychotics that have more pronounced serotonin antagonism than dopamine antagonism, but risperidone is unique in this class because it retains dopamine antagonism. It has high affinity for D₂ dopaminergic receptors. It has actions at several 5-HT (serotonin) receptor subtypes. These are 5-HT_2C, linked to weight gain, 5-HT_2A,linked to its antipsychotic action and relief of some of the extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) experienced with the typical neuroleptics.

It reaches peak plasma levels quickly regardless of whether it is administered as a liquid or pill. Risperidone is metabolised fairly quickly, so the potential for nausea subsides usually in two to three hours. However, the active metabolite, 9-hydroxy-risperidone, which has similar pharmacodynamics to risperidone, remains in the body for much longer, and has been developed as an antipsychotic in its own right, called paliperidone.

An intramuscular preparation, marketed as Risperdal Consta, can be given once every two weeks. It is slowly released from the injection site. This method of administration may be used on sanctioned patients who are declining, or consenting patients who may have disorganized thinking and cannot remember to take their daily doses.^[17] Doses range from 12.5 to 50 mg given as an intramuscular injection once every two weeks.

Lexapro (symbolc misrepresentation)[Lexis-vocabulary, pro-(for, skilled]

Lexapro [Lexis(vocabulary) + Pro]

Escitalopram

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Escitalopram

Systematic (IUPAC) name
(S)-1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran-5-carbonitrile
Identifiers
CAS number	128196-01-0
ATC code	N06AB10
PubChem	CID 146570
DrugBank	APRD00683
ChemSpider	129277
UNII	4O4S742ANY
Chemical data
Formula	C20H21FN2O
Mol. mass	324.392 g/mol (414.43 as oxalate)
SMILES	eMolecules & PubChem
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	80%
Protein binding	~56%
Metabolism	Liver, specifically the enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C19
Half-life	27–32 hours
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.	C
Legal status	Rx Only (U.S) POM (U.K)
Routes	Oral
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Lexapro tablets

Cipralex brand escitalopram package and tablet sheet

Escitalopram (trade names Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Lexamil) is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment in adults with major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder , or panic disorder. Escitalopram is the S-stereoisomer (enantiomer) of the earlier Lundbeck drug citalopram, hence the name escitalopram. Escitalopram is noted for its high selectivity of serotonin reuptake inhibition and has side effects typical for the SSRI class.

Contents [show] 1 History 2 Use in depression 3 Pharmacology 4 Side effects and drug interactions 5 Discontinuation symptoms 6 Controversy 7 References 8 Cited texts 9 See also 10 External links

[edit] History

Escitalopram was developed in a close cooperation between Lundbeck and Forest Laboratories. Its development was initiated in the summer of 1997, and the resulting new drug application was submitted to the U.S. FDA in March 2001. The short time (3.5 years) it took to develop escitalopram can be attributed to the previous extensive experience of Lundbeck and Forest with citalopram, which has similar pharmacology.^[1]evergreening“^[2] (also called “lifecycle management”^[3])– the long-term strategy pharmaceutical companies use in order to extend the lifetime of a drug, in this case of the citalopram franchise. Escitalopram is an enantiopure compound of the racemic mixture citalopram, used for the same indication, and for that reason it required less investment and less time to develop. Two years after escitalopram’s launch, when the patent on citalopram expired, the escitalopram sales successfully made up for the loss. On May 23, 2006, the FDA approved a generic version of escitalopram by Teva.^[4] On July 14 of that year, however, the U.S. District Court of Delaware decided in favor of Lundbeck regarding the patent infringement dispute and ruled the patent on escitalopram valid.^[5] The FDA issued the approval of escitalopram for major depression in August 2002 and for generalized anxiety disorder in December 2003. Escitalopram can be considered an example of “

In 2006 Forest Laboratories was granted an 828 day (2 years and 3 months) extension on its US patent for escitalopram.^[6] This pushed the patent expiry from December 7, 2009 to March 14, 2012.

Geodon [geo (earth) + don(dominic)]

LORD

Don, from Latin dominus, is an honorific in Spanish ([don]), Portuguese (Dom, [dõ]), and Italian ([dɔn]). The female equivalent is Doña (Spanish: [ˈdoɲa]), Dona (Portuguese: [ˈdonɐ]), and Donna (Italian: [ˈdɔnna]), abbreviated “Dª” or simply “D.”

Dominus is the Latin word for master or owner.

Ziprasidone

Ziprasidone

Systematic (IUPAC) name
5-[2-[4-(1,2-benzisothiazol-3-yl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]- 6-chloro-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2-one
Identifiers
CAS number	146939-27-7
ATC code	N05AE04
PubChem	CID 60854
IUPHAR ligand ID	59
DrugBank	DB00246
ChemSpider	54841
Chemical data
Formula	C21H21ClN4OS
Mol. mass	412.936
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability	100% (intramuscular) 60% (orally)
Metabolism	hepatic (aldehyde reductase)
Half-life	7 hours
Excretion	Urine and feces
Therapeutic considerations
Licence data	US FDA:link
Pregnancy cat.	C(US)
Legal status	℞ Prescription only
Routes	oral, intramuscular
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Ziprasidone (marketed as Geodon, Zeldox by Pfizer) was the fifth atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval (February 2001). In the United States, Ziprasidone is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, and the intramuscular injection form of ziprasidone is approved for acute agitation in schizophrenic patients. Ziprasidone has also received approval for acute treatment of mania and mixed states associated with bipolar disorder. The brand name Geodon has been suggested to bring to mind the phrase ‘down (don) to earth (geo)’ referring to the goals of the medication.

The oral form of ziprasidone is the hydrochloride salt, ziprasidone hydrochloride. The intramuscular form, on the other hand, is the mesylate salt, ziprasidone mesylate trihydrate, and is provided as a lyophilized powder.

Geodon was one of four drugs which Pfizer in 2009 pleaded guilty to misbranding “with the intent to defraud or mislead”. Pfizer agreed to pay $2.3 billion (£1.4 billion) in settlement, and entered a corporate integrity agreement. Pfizer was found to have illegally promoted four of its drugs for use in conditions that had not been approved by the FDA.^[1]

Contents [show] 1 Pharmacology 2 Pharmacokinetics 3 Adverse effects 4 Off-label uses 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Pharmacology

Ziprasidone has a high affinity for dopamine, serotonin, and alpha-adrenergic receptors and a moderate affinity for histamine receptors, where it is believed to act as an antagonist.^[2] Ziprasidone also displays some inhibition of synaptic reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine^[2][3], although the clinical significance of this is unknown. The mechanism of action of ziprasidone is unknown. However it has been theorized that its antipsychotic activity is mediated primarily by antagonism at dopamine receptors, specifically D₂. Serotonin antagonism may also play a role in the effectiveness of ziprasidone, but the significance of 5-HT_2A antagonism is debated among researchers.^[4] Ziprasidone has perhaps the most selective affinity for 5-HT_2A receptors relative to D₂ and 5-HT_2C receptors of any neuroleptic.^[5][6] Antagonism at histaminic and alpha adrenergic receptors likely explains some of the side effects of ziprasidone, such as sedation and orthostasis.

[edit] Pharmacokinetics

The systemic bioavailability of ziprasidone administered intramuscularly is 100%, or 60%, administered orally with food. After a single dose intramuscular administration, the peak serum concentration typically occurs at about 60 minutes after the dose is administered, or earlier. Steady state plasma concentrations are achieved within one to three days. The mean half-life ranges from two to five hours. Exposure increases in a dose-related manner and following three days of intramuscular dosing, little accumulation is observed.

Ziprasidone absorption is not optimally achieved when administered without food. Without a meal preceding dose, the bioavailability of the drug is reduced by approximately 50%.^[7][8]

Ziprasidone is hepatically metabolized by aldehyde oxidase; minor metabolism occurs via cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4).^[9] Medications that induce (e.g. carbamazepine) or inhibit (e.g. ketoconazole) CYP3A4 have been shown to decrease and increase, respectively, blood levels of ziprasidone.^[10][11]

[edit] Adverse effects

Ziprasidone received a black box warning due to increased mortality in elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis.^[7] It also slightly increases the QTc interval in some patients and increases the risk of a potentially lethal type of heart arrhythmia known as torsades de pointes. Ziprasidone should be used cautiously in patients taking other medications likely to interact with ziprasidone or increase the QTc interval.^[12]

Patients in general will experience loss of focus and motivation as well as blurry vision to the point that stronger doses may cause thoughts of suicide while the medicine is in the patients system. Thoughts of suicide may occur. Typically side effects will start about an hour after ingestion and peak about four to five hours after ingestion. Patient will most likely be unable to operate machinery or drive a vehicle while the medicine is effecting the patient as blurred vision can be quite severe.

Ziprasidone may cause cause dangerous—even fatal—heartbeat irregularities.

Geodon generally adheres to the mid section of the prefrontal cortex. It derives from the ideas and thoughts process in the prefrontal cortex in which determines a treatment diagnosis for psychosis. Those who experience the symptoms of psychosis will experience on-going symptoms such as: lack of sleep, insomnia, and uncontrollable desires and experiences. Geodone adheres and corrects the prefrontal cortex by delivering an enzyme called (enzyme-B). This enzyme corrects the basal ganglia function which coorelates with the B-cortex hemispheres. In other words the enzyme delivers a vital nutrient into the system which is release by the geodome once again, called enzyme-b. The process of Geodon is somewhat confusing as it affects both the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex. By affecting the basal ganglia the prefrontal cortex does what is called: identity change. This is a process in which enzymes are switched from one section of the brain to another. The prefrontal cortex is mainly involved in spacial recognition which will be slightly alleviated by the geodon. Those who experience spacial recognition problems usually suffer from psychosis.

Ziprasidone is known to cause activation into mania in some bipolar patients.^[13][14][15]

This medication can cause birth defects, according to animal studies, although this side effect has not been confirmed in humans.^[7]

Adverse events reported for ziprasidone include severe chest pains, impaired erectile function and stimulation, sedation, insomnia, orthostasis, life-threatening neuroleptic malignant syndrome, akathisia, and the development of permanent neurological disorder tardive dyskinesia. Rarely, temporary speech disorders may result.

Recently, the FDA required the manufacturers of some atypical antipsychotics include a warning about the risk of hyperglycemia and Type II diabetes with atypical antipsychotics. Some evidence suggests that ziprasidone may not be as bad as some of the other atypical antipsychotics (namely, olanzapine (Zyprexa)) at causing insulin resistance and weight gain.^{[16][17][18][19]} In fact, in a trial of long term therapy with ziprasidone, overweight patients (BMI > 27) actually had a mean weight loss overall.^[7] Ziprasidone, though, is not a weight loss drug. The weight loss reflected in this study on ziprasidone was really reflective of patients who had gained weight on other antipsychotics who were now trending back toward their baseline.^{[citation needed]}clozapine and olanzapine). According to the manufacturer insert, ziprasidone caused an average weight gain of 2.2 kg (4.8 lbs) (which is significantly lower than other atypicals–

[edit] Off-label uses

In addition to its antipsychotic use, ziprasidone is sometimes prescribed for the treatment of tic disorders. A small study^[20] has supported the efficacy of this use.