Dopaminergic
Dopaminergic means related to the neurotransmitter dopamine.[1] For example, certain proteins such as the dopamine transporter (DAT), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), and dopamine receptors can be classified as dopaminergic, and neurons which synthesize or contain dopamine and synapses with dopamine receptors in them may also be labeled as dopaminergic. Enzymes which regulate the biosynthesis or metabolism of dopamine such as aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD) or DOPA decarboxylasemonoamine oxidase (MAO), and catechol O-methyl transferase (COMT) may be referred to as dopaminergic as well. Lastly, any endogenous or exogenous chemical substance which acts to affect dopamine receptors or dopamine release through indirect actions (for example, on neurons that synapse onto neurons that release dopamine or express dopamine receptors) can also be said to have dopaminergic effects, two prominent examples being opioids which enhance dopamine release indirectly in the reward pathways, and amphetamines, which enhance dopamine release directly by binding to, and inhibiting VMAT2. (DDC),
[edit] Supplements and drugs
- Precursors including L-phenylalanine (PHE), L-tyrosine (TYR), and L-DOPA (Levodopa; Sinemet, Parcopa, Atamet, Stalevo, Madopar, Prolopa, etc; also found in Mucuna pruriens (Velvet Bean)), which are all used as dietary supplements, and the latter of which is also used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD).
- Cofactors including ferrous iron (Fe2+), tetrahydrobiopterin (THB, BH4), vitamin B3 (niacin, niacinamide) → NADPH, vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal → pyridoxal phosphatevitamin B9 (folic acid) → tetrahydrofolic acid (THFA, H4FA), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), and zinc (Zn2+), which are used as dietary supplements. (PLP),
- Dopamine receptor agonists such as apomorphine (Apokyn, Uprima), bromocriptine (Parolodel), cabergoline (Dostinex), dihydrexidine (LS-186,899), dopamine (Intropin, Revivan), fenoldopampiribedil (Trivastal), lisuride (Dopergin), pergolide (Permax), pramipexole (Mirapex), ropinirole (Requip), and rotigotine (Neupro), which are used in the treatment of Parkinson’s diseaserestless legs syndrome (RLS), hyperprolactinemia (HPA), and sexual dysfunction (SD), as well as are being investigated in the treatment of depression and anxiety as antidepressants and anxiolytics, respectively. (Corlopam), (PD),
- Dopamine receptor antagonists including typical antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine (Thorazine), fluphenazine (Prolixin), haloperidol (Haldol), loxapine (Loxitane), molindone (Moban), perphenazinepimozide (Orap), thioridazine (Mellaril), thiothixene (Navane), and trifluoperazineatypical antipsychotics such as amisulpride (Solian), clozapine (Clozaril), olanzapinequetiapine (Seroquel), risperidone (Risperdal), sulpiride (Dogmatil), and ziprasidoneantiemetics like domperidone, metoclopramide (Reglan), and prochlorperazineschizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) as antipsychotics, and nausea and vomiting. (Trilafon), (Stelazine), the (Zyprexa), (Geodon), and (Compazine), among others, which are used in the treatment of schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) as antipsychotics, and nausea and vomiting.
- Dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs) or dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibitors such as methylphenidate (Ritalin, Focalin, Concerta), bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban), amineptine (Survector, Maneon, Directin), and nomifensine (Merital, Alival), as well as cocaine (“Coke”, “Crack”, etc), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV; “Sonic”), ketamine (K; Ketalar, Ketanest, Ketaset; “Special-K”, “Kit Kat”, etc), and phencyclidine (PCP; Sernyl; “Angel Dust”, “Rocket Fuel”, etc), among others, which are used in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy as psychostimulants, obesity as anorectics, depression and anxiety as antidepressants and anxiolytics, respectively, drug addiction as anticraving agents, and sexual dysfunction, as well as illicitstreet drugs.
- Dopamine releasing agents (DRAs) such as amphetamine (Adderall, Dexedrine; “Speed”), lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse), methamphetamine (Desoxyn; “Meth”, “Crank”, “Crystal”, etc), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; “Ecstasy”, “E”, “X”, “XTC”, etc), phenmetrazine (Preludin; “Prellies”), pemoline (Cylert), 4-methylaminorex (4-MAR; “Ice”, “Euphoria”, etc), and benzylpiperazineattention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy as psychostimulants, obesity as anorectics, depression and anxiety as antidepressants and anxiolytics, respectively, drug addiction as anticraving agents, and sexual dysfunction, as well as illicit street drugs. (BZP; “Bennies”, “A2”, “Sunrise”, “Frenzy”, etc), among many others, which, like DRIs, are used in the treatment of
- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (MAOIs) including nonselective agents such as phenelzinetranylcypromine (Parnate), and isocarboxazid (Marplan), MAOA selective agents like moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix), and MAOB selective agents such as selegiline (Eldepryl, Zelapar, Emsam), rasagiline (Azilect), and pargyline (Eutonyl), as well as the harmala alkaloids like harmine, harmaline, tetrahydroharmine, harmalol, harman, and norharman, which are found to varying degrees in Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco; also cigarettes, cigars, chew, hookah, etc), Banisteriopsis caapiPeganum harmala (Harmal, Syrian Rue), Passiflora incarnata (Passion Flower), and Tribulus terrestris (Puncture Vine), among others, which are used in the treatment of depression and anxiety as antidepressants and anxiolytics, respectively, in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) and dementia, and for the recreational purpose of boosting the effects of certain drugsphenethylamine (PEA) and psychedelics like dimethyltryptamine (DMT) via inhibiting their metabolism. (Nardil), (Ayahausca, Caapi, Yage), like
- Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD) or DOPA decarboxylase (DDC) inhibitors including benserazide (Prolopa, Madopar, etc), carbidopa (Lodosyn, Atamet, Parcopa, Sinemet, Stalevo, etc), and methyldopa (Aldomet, Aldoril, Dopamet, Dopegyt, etc), which are used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in augmentation of L-DOPA ((Levodopa; Sinemet, Parcopa, Atamet, Stalevo, Madopar, Prolopa, etc)) to block the peripheral conversion of dopamine thereby inhibiting undesirable side effects, and as sympatholytic or antihypertensive agents.
Phenethylamine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[edit] Chemistry
Phenethylamine is an amine, consisting of a benzene ring and an aminoethyl group. It is a colorless liquid at room temperature. Phenethylamine is soluble in water, ethanol, and ether. Similar to other low-molecular-weight amines, it has a fishy odor. Upon exposure to air, it forms a solid carbonate salt with carbon dioxide. Phenethylamine is strongly basic and forms a stable crystalline hydrochloride salt with a melting point of 217 °C. Phenethylamine is also a skin irritant and possible sensitizer.
[edit] Pharmacology
Dopamine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Dopamine |
 |
 |
4-(2-aminoethyl)benzene-1,2-diol
|
2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)ethylamine;
3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine;
3-hydroxytyramine; DA; Intropin; Revivan; Oxytyramine
|
| Identifiers |
| CAS number |
51-61-6  Y,
62-31-7 (hydrochloride) |
| PubChem |
681 |
| ChemSpider |
661 |
| UNII |
VTD58H1Z2X Y |
| SMILES |
|
| InChI |
1/C8H11NO2/c9-4-3-6-1-2-7(10)8(11)5-6/h1-2,5,10-11H,3-4,9H2
|
| InChI key |
VYFYYTLLBUKUHU-UHFFFAOYAA
|
| Properties |
| Molecular formula |
C8H11NO2 |
| Molar mass |
153.18 g/mol |
| Density |
1.26 g/cm3 |
| Melting point |
128 °C, 401 K, 262 °F |
| Boiling point |
decomposes |
| Solubility in water |
60.0 g/100 ml |
| Hazards |
| R-phrases |
R36/37/38 |
| S-phrases |
S26 S36 |
 (what is this?) (verify)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)Y |
| Infobox references |
[edit] History
Dopamine was first synthesized in 1910 by George Barger and James Ewens at Wellcome Laboratories in London, England.[2] It was named dopamine because it was a monoamine, and its synthetic precursor was 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). Dopamine’s function as a neurotransmitter was first recognized in 1958 by Arvid Carlsson and Nils-Åke Hillarp at the Laboratory for Chemical Pharmacology of the National Heart Institute of Sweden.[3] Carlsson was awarded the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for showing that dopamine is not just a precursor of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline), but a neurotransmitter as well.
[edit] Biochemistry
[edit] Name and family
Dopamine has the chemical formula C6H3(OH)2-CH2-CH2-NH2. Its chemical name is “4-(2-aminoethyl)benzene-1,2-diol” and its abbreviation is “DA.”
As a member of the catecholamine family, dopamine is a precursor to norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and then epinephrine (adrenaline) in the biosynthetic pathways for these neurotransmitters.
The effects of drugs that reduce dopamine activity
In humans, drugs that reduce dopamine activity (neuroleptics, e.g. antipsychotics) have been shown to reduce motivation, cause anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure), and long-term use has been associated with the irreversible movement disorder, tardive dyskinesia.[26] Furthermore, antipsychotic drugs are associated with weight gain, diabetes, lactation, gynecomastia, drooling, dysphoria, fatigue, sexual dysfunction, and heart rhythm problems. Selective D2/D3 agonists pramipexole and ropinirole, used to treat restless legs syndrome[27] (RLS), have limited anti-anhedonic properties as measured by the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS).
[edit] Opioid and cannabinoid transmission
Opioid and cannabinoid transmission instead of dopamine may modulate consummatory pleasure and food palatability (liking).[28] This could explain why animals’ “liking” of food is independent of brain dopamine concentration. Other consummatory pleasures, however, may be more associated with dopamine. One study found that both anticipatory and consummatory measures of sexual behavior (male rats) were disrupted by DA receptor antagonists.[29] Libido can be increased by drugs that affect dopamine, but not by drugs that affect opioid peptides or other neurotransmitters.
[edit] Sociability
[edit] Processing of pain
Dopamine has been demonstrated to play a role in pain processing in multiple levels of the central nervous system including the spinal cord,[31] periaqueductal gray (PAG),[32] thalamus,[33] basal ganglia,[34][35] insular cortex,[36][37] and cingulate cortex.[38] Accordingly, decreased levels of dopamine have been associated with painful symptoms that frequently occur in Parkinson’s disease.[39] Abnormalities in dopaminergic neurotransmission have also been demonstrated in painful clinical conditions, including burning mouth syndrome,[40] fibromyalgia,[41][42] and restless legs syndrome.[43] In general, the analgesic capacity of dopamine occurs as a result of dopamine D2 receptor activation; however, exceptions to this exist in the PAG, in which dopamine D1 receptor activation attenuates pain presumably via activation of neurons involved in descending inhibition.[44] In addition, D1 receptor activation in the insular cortex appears to attenuate subsequent pain-related behavior.
[edit] Salience
Dopamine may also have a role in the salience of potentially important stimuli, such as sources of reward or of danger.[45] This hypothesis argues that dopamine assists decision-making by influencing the priority, or level of desire, of such stimuli to the person concerned.
[edit] Behavior disorders
Deficient dopamine neurotransmission is implicated in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and stimulant medications used to successfully treat the disorder increase dopamine neurotransmission, leading to decreased symptoms.[46] Consistent with this hypothesis, dopaminergic pathways have a role in inhibitory action control and the inhibition of the tendency to make unwanted actions.[47]
[edit] Latent inhibition and creative drive
[edit] Chemoreceptor trigger zone
[edit] Dopaminergic mind hypothesis
The dopaminergic mind hypothesis seeks to explain the differences between modern humans and their hominid relatives by focusing on changes in dopamine.[50] It theorizes that increased levels of dopamine were part of a general physiological adaptation due to an increased consumption of meat around two million years ago in Homo habilis, and later enhanced by changes in diet and other environmental and social factors beginning approximately 80,000 years ago. Under this theory, the “high-dopamine” personality is characterized by high intelligence, a sense of personal destiny, a religious/cosmic preoccupation, an obsession with achieving goals and conquests, an emotional detachment that in many cases leads to ruthlessness, and a risk-taking mentality. High levels of dopamine are proposed to underlie increased psychological disorders in industrialized societies. According to this hypothesis, a “dopaminergic society” is an extremely goal-oriented, fast-paced, and even manic society, “given that dopamine is known to increase activity levels, speed up our internal clocks and create a preference for novel over unchanging environments.”[50] In the same way that high-dopamine individuals lack empathy and exhibit a more masculine behavioral style, dopaminergic societies are “typified by more conquest, competition, and aggression than nurturance and communality.”[50] Although behavioral evidence and some indirect anatomical evidence (e.g., enlargement of the dopamine-rich striatum in humans)[51] support a dopaminergic expansion in humans, there is still no direct evidence that dopamine levels are markedly higher in humans relative to other apes.[52] However, recent discoveries about the sea-side settlements of early man may provide evidence of dietary changes consistent with this hypothesis.[53]
[edit] Links to psychosis
Abnormally high dopaminergic transmission has been linked to psychosis and schizophrenia.[54] Increased dopaminergic functional activity, specifically in the mesolimbic pathway, is found in schizophrenic individuals. Anti-psychotic medications act largely as dopamine antagonists, inhibiting dopamine at the receptor level, and thereby blocking the effects of the neurochemical in a dose-dependant manner. The older, so-called typical antipsychotics most commonly act on D2 receptors,[55] while the atypical drugs also act on D1, D3 and D4 receptors.[56][57] The finding that drugs such as amphetamines, methamphetamine and cocaine, which can increase dopamine levels by more than tenfold,[58] can temporarily cause psychosis, provides further evidence for this link.[5
Therapeutic use
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Antipsychotics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An antipsychotic (or neuroleptic) is a tranquilizing psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions or hallucinations, as well as disordered thought), particularly in schizophreniabipolar disorder. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s. Most of the drugs in the second generation, known as atypical antipsychotics, have been developed more recently, although the first atypical antipsychotic, clozapine, was discovered in the 1950s and introduced clinically in the 1970s. Both generations of medication tend to block receptors in the brain’s dopamine pathways, but antipsychotic drugs encompass a wide range of receptor targets. and
A number of harmful and undesired (adverse) effects have been observed, including lowered life expectancy, weight gain, enlarged breasts and milk discharge in men and women (hyperprolactinaemia), lowered white blood cell count (agranulocytosis), involuntary repetitive body movements (tardive dyskinesia), diabetes, an inability to sit still or remain motionless (tardive akathisia), sexual dysfunction, a return of psychosis requiring increasing the dosage due to cells producing more neurochemicals to compensate for the drugs (tardive psychosis), and a potential for permanent chemical dependence leading to psychosis much worse than before treatment began, if the drug dosage is ever lowered or stopped (tardive dysphrenia).
Temporary withdrawal symptoms including insomnia, agitation, psychosis, and motor disorders may occur during dosage reduction of antipsychotics, and can be mistaken for a return of the underlying condition.[1][2]
History
The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a “chemical lobotomy“. Lobotomy at the time was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its effect was to markedly reduce behavior and mental functioning of all types. However, chlorpromazine proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than the extreme lobotomy-like sedation it was known for. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent antipsychotic drugs have been discovered by an approach that incorporates this sort of information.
Drug action
All antipsychotic drugs tend to block D2 receptors in the dopamine pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. It is the blockade of dopamine receptors in this pathway that is thought to control psychotic experiences.
Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block dopamine receptors in the mesocortical pathway, tuberoinfundibular pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. Blocking D2 receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some of the unwanted side effects that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see below). They were commonly classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency referred to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug. High-potency antipsychotics such as haloperidol, in general, have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low-potency antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine, which have dosages of several hundred milligrams. The latter have a greater degree of anticholinergic and antihistaminergic activity, which can counteract dopamine-related side effects.
Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D2 receptors. Some also block or partially block serotonin receptors (particularly 5HT2A, C and 5HT1A receptors):ranging from risperidone, which acts overwhelmingly on serotonin receptors, to amisulpride, which has no serotonergic activity. The additional effects on serotonin receptors may be why some of them can benefit the “negative symptoms” of schizophrenia.[74]
Controversy
Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff.[81] In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of anti-psychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year.[82][83] In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company Johnson and Johnson for allegedly paying kickbacks to Omnicare to promote its antipsychotic Risperidone (Risperdal) in nursing homes.[84]
There is some controversy over maintenance therapy for schizophrenia.[2][85] A review of studies about maintenance therapy concluded that long-term antipsychotic treatment was superior to placebo in reducing relapse in individuals with schizophrenia, although some of the studies were small.[86] A review of major longitudinal studies in North America found that a moderate number of patients with schizophrenia were seen to recover over time from their symptoms, raising the possibility that some patients may not require maintenance medication.[85] It has also been argued that much of the research into long-term antipsychotic maintenance may be flawed due to failure to take into account the role of antipsychotic withdrawal effects on relapse rates.[2]
There has also been controversy about the role of pharmaceutical companies in marketing and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. For example in the US, Eli Lilly recently pleaded guilty to violating US laws for over a decade in regard to Zyprexa (olanzapine), and was ordered to pay $1.42 billion to settle criminal and civil allegations, including the biggest criminal fine for an individual corporation ever imposed in US history; while Astrazeneca Seroquel (quetiapine), amidst federal investigations of its marketing practices.[87] By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca’s Seroquel and Eli Lilly’s Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $5.5 billion and $5.4 billion respectively.[11] is facing about 9,000 personal-injury lawsuits from more than 15,000 former users of
Some critics have also analyzed the use of alleged front organizations and conflicted patient “advocacy” groups funded by pharmaceutical companies that seek to set the mental health agenda, including the use of the law to force people to take antipsychotics against their will, often justified by claims about risk of violence.[88]
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